The Turin Shroud has been conclusively dated to between 1260-1390 AD with 95% confidence by three independent radio-carbon dating tests.

There is no contradictory science.

However, Shroudies source unpublished studies and junk science from Shroud activists to support their assertion that the artifact is the authentic burial cloth of Jesus and that the image was created by a bodily resurrection event that expended 34,000 trillion watts of energy.

A note about peer-review; if the authors of any study have confidence in their data, they would submit it to an accredited journal.

If the review board of the accredited journal finds the work to meet scientific standards, it would have been submitted for peer-review.

If peer-review judged the work to be valid, it would have been published.

Blood on the Shroud of Turin

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

1980: John Heller and Alan Adler

Cited to support the assertion that Type AB blood was found on the Shroud.

Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin

1989: P. E. Damon, et al.

"The results of radio-carbon measurements at Arizona, Oxford, and Zurich yield a calibrated calendar age with at least 95% confidence for the linen of the Shroud of Turin to 1260-1390 AD. These results provide conclusive evidence that the Shroud of Turin is medieval."

Uncovering the sources of DNA found on the Turin Shroud

2015: Gianni Barcaccia, et al.

"In 1978 and 1988, dust particles were vacuumed from the interspace between the Shroud and the Holland Cloth sewn to it as reinforcement."

This study is often cited to erroneously support the idea that the blood stain images contain blood from which DNA was extracted. The pollen recovered from those vacuuming were used for the below study.

This study is also used to claim that pollen that is unique to Jerusalem was found on the Shroud. The fact is, there were 54 different types of pollen from plants mostly from the eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey.

New Insights on Blood Evidence from the Turin Shroud Consistent with Jesus Christ's Tortures

2024: Giulio Fanti

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

Used to explain that only blood proteins (not blood) were found on the Shroud because extreme torture caused chemical changes.

The relics of Jesus and Eucharistic miracles: scientific analysis of shared AB blood type

2024: Kelly Kearse

Used to promote the falsehood that blood (Type AB) was found on the Shroud.

It concludes, "Indeed, the most likely explanation for such observations is that they result from the presence of common antigens present on bacteria."

Note that it is commentary, not science.

Studies on the radiocarbon sample from the shroud of Turin

2004: Raymond Rogers

Cited to show that the 1998 radio-carbon dating samples were taken from a medieval repair patch.

Pyrolysis/Mass Spectrometry Applied to the Shroud of Turin

2004: Raymond Rogers

Cited to show that the sample location was a medieval repair patch because Madder root dye was found only on the sample. This theory was falsified in the following study and from McCrone's data.

Rogers is featured prominently on this Wiki page about fringe Shroud theories including his "bio-contamination theory", "corona discharge theory", "Maillard reaction hypothesis", and "vanillin loss theory" which were floated after he secretly retained undocumented Shroud threads and compared them to other undocumented Shroud threads.

There is no mass spectrometry evidence that the C14 sample from the Shroud of Turin comes from a medieval invisible mending

2015: Marco Bella, Luigi Garlaschelli, Roberto Samperi

Photogrammetric Responses From The Shroud of Turin

1999: Peter M. Schumacher

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

Used to show the Shroud has unique 3-D properties when analyzed by a VP-8 Image Analyzer.

New Scientific Tests May Explain Image on Turin Shroud

1986: Biblical Archaeology Review

Soil samples from this dig were used in the unpublished paper that limestone unique to Jerusalem was found on the Shroud.

Life-size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and its Image

2010: Luigi Garlaschelli

Garlaschelli created a replica Shroud by using materials and methods discovered by McCrone from the 1300s

Exploration of the Face of the Turin Shroud. Pollens Studied by SEM Analysis

2015: Gérard Lucotte

Used to support claim that pollen unique to Judea was discovered on the Shroud.

A Chemical Investigation of the Shroud of Turin

1981: John Heller and Alan Adler

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

Used to support assertion that human blood was discovered on the Shroud. No human blood has ever been found on the Shroud.

The red stains are from the red ochre pigment that was used. Dried blood is always black under a microscope and the Shroud's stains are red. The stains also contain iron oxide and no potassium.

Blood on the Shroud of Turin: An Immunological Review

2012: Kelly Kearse

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

Used to support the assertion that human blood was discovered on the Shroud from this excerpt, "Each individual blood wound shows a distinct serum clot retraction ring; such blood halos are only visible under ultraviolet light, a detail that a forger is unlikely to have been familiar with."

No published science has ever found any human blood on the Shroud.

A Comprehensive Examination of the Various Stains and Images on the Shroud of Turin

1984: Adler, Heller, et al.

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

This paper is used to support the assertion that human blood was found on the Shroud with this excerpt, "First, let us turn to the blood images. These are clearly made of blood, likely human; however, we cannot state absolutely that the blood is of human origin."

There is no published science that has discovered human blood on the Shroud.

"Although this observation indicates that the Shroud is
quite old, we urge caution in interpreting it and strongly encourage judgment be withheld until such time as a carbon-14 dating is performed."

Four years later, three radio-carbon dating tests were performed and they dated it conclusively to between 1260-1390 AD. There is no contradictory science.

The Carbon Dating of the Shroud is explained by Neutron Absorption

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

2020: Robert Rucker

Used to promote the theory that the Shroud cannot be accurately radio-carbon dated due to the consequence of the bodily resurrection that emitted neutrons onto the Shroud which then formed new carbon 14 atoms.

Shroud Research Network

None published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

2016-2024: Robert Rucker

He refers to himself as "Independent researcher" and his affiliation as "Shroud Research Network", which is his own organization.

He only posts papers (at least 39 now) to the Shroud Research website, which is his own website and he only footnotes his own papers.

X-ray Dating of a Turin Shroud’s Linen Sample (WAXS)

2022: Liberato De Caro

Used to support the assertion that the Shroud is dated to the first century by this new and improved dating method created by him, solely to date the Shroud. This method has never been validated by science.

Wiki: "The WAXS technique is used to determine the degree of crystallinity of polymer samples. It can also be used to determine the chemical composition or phase composition of a film, the texture of a film (preferred alignment of crystallites), the crystallite size and presence of film stress."

Atomic resolution studies detect new biologic evidences on the Turin Shroud

Retracted by the review board for bad science and for concealing their conflict of interest.

This study is still cited as evidence that blood serum rings were found on the Shroud even though they acknowledge that forgery was involved in creating the artifact.

2017: Liberato De Caro

Final Report: Examination of the Shroud

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

1981: Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP)

Used to promote the idea human blood was discovered on the Shroud based on this, "The blood stains are composed of hemoglobin and also give a positive test for serum albumin."

Note that those who claim blood is present actually refer to blood proteins. And those same proteins are found in pigment fixatives used in the period. The proteins came from the dry pigment mixed with water and a glue of made of proteinaceous tempera.

Importanly, other components of blood, such as potassium, were not found on the Shroud (which is where the theory that torture caused the chemical changes came into being).

McCrone, part of the STURP team, published his data in 1998 that found the "blood" was painted with vermilion in a gelatin medium.

The Shroud was created with 34,000 trillion watts of energy flashing for 1/40 of a billionth of a second

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

2025: Paolo di Lazzaro

Dating The Shroud Of Turin: Weighing All The Evidence

Not published by an accredited journal or peer-reviewed.

2011: Raymond J. Schneider

This paper is cited to support the idea that limestone unique to Jerusalem, specifically near the Damascus Gate, was found on the feet of the Shroud image.

$1,000,000 Shroud Reproduction Challege ("The Challenge") is rescinded

2025: Who Can He Be

"After two-and-a-half years during which no-one has attempted to claim this $1m prize, the producers have now decided to bring the Challenge to an end. Given that there are many people, including some artists and scientists, who continue to promote the claim that the Shroud is the work of a medieval forger, it is perhaps quite telling that not one of them, or any other contenders, applied to compete for this $1m reward."

The challenge was offered only to Americans. Garlaschelli is Itailian and was working for his Italian university, so it was their intellectual property. But once the method for creating replicas was published (by using the methods and materials discovered by McCrone), the offer was rescinded before anyone could claim it.